Speech and Language in Children and Adults

Speech and language are not the same thing

What does a speech-language pathologist treat?

Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) work with communication and swallowing at every age. ASHA, their professional body, lists the areas as speech production, fluency, language, cognition, voice, resonance, feeding and swallowing, and hearing.⁠¹

Speech sounds — how sounds are produced. Includes articulation and phonological difficulties, and apraxia of speech, where the difficulty is in planning the movements rather than making them.⁠¹ See also lisp. If speech is simply late to arrive rather than developing atypically, see delayed speech. For adults, see dysarthria for slurred or slow speech, and apraxia of speech in adults.

Language — split into two halves that can develop unevenly. Receptive is understanding; expressive is using. A child who follows complex instructions but speaks in two-word phrases has an expressive difficulty. See developmental language disorder and language processing disorder. In adults, losing words or the understanding of them, usually after a stroke or brain injury, is aphasia.⁠⁴

Fluency — the rhythm and flow of speech, including stuttering and cluttering.⁠¹ See stuttering in children and stuttering in adults.

Voice and resonance — pitch, volume, and quality, and how sound resonates through the mouth and nose. Hoarseness that has not cleared up within four weeks, at any age, is a reason to have the voice box examined, and sooner if a serious cause is suspected.⁠⁵ See voice disorders.

Cognition — attention, memory, problem solving and executive function, the thinking skills behind communication.⁠¹ For adults after a brain injury, stroke or illness, see cognitive-communication disorders.

Feeding and swallowing — from a child who eats only a few foods or refuses them to an adult's swallowing after a stroke.⁠¹ See feeding therapy for children and dysphagia for adults.

Social communication — using language appropriately in context. Relevant to autistic children, to gestalt language processing, and to nonspeaking autism.⁠¹

Hearing and listening — speech and language affected by hearing loss, and auditory processing.⁠¹ See auditory processing disorder and how auditory processing disorder differs from autism.

How common are speech and language disorders?

About 1 in 14 children in the US aged 3 to 17 (7.2 percent) had a voice, speech or language disorder in the past year. The rate was highest at ages 3 to 6 (10.8 percent) and higher in boys than in girls (9.1 versus 5.2 percent), and just over half of these children (59.7 percent) received intervention services that year.⁠⁶

• Developmental language disorder: about 7 percent of children, roughly 1 in 14.⁠⁶
• Speech sound disorders: 8 to 9 percent of young children; by first grade, about 5 percent have a noticeable speech disorder.⁠⁶
• Stuttering: more than 3 million Americans, about 1 percent. Most children who stutter grow out of it, but as many as 1 in 4 go on stuttering for life.⁠⁶
• Voice problems: 17.9 million US adults, 7.6 percent, report a problem with their voice in a year.⁠⁶
• Aphasia: about 2 million people in the US live with it, and nearly 180,000 acquire it each year.⁠⁶
• Swallowing problems: about 1 in 25 adults a year, in a national survey of US adults, and fewer than 1 in 4 of them (22.7 percent) saw a health professional about it.⁠⁷

Speech and language milestones by age

Guidance from the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, with the CDC's checklist where it differs. These are ranges, not deadlines — but a child missing several is worth a conversation.⁠^8,9

One caveat. How a child is progressing matters more than any single date. A child who was slow at two and is adding words steadily at two and a half looks different from one who has stalled. Direction of travel is the useful signal, which is why ASHA's guidance for late talkers is to recheck at regular intervals, such as every six months.⁠¹⁰

• Speech and language milestones from birth to seven
• Toddler speech check: should I be worried?
• Speech, movement and hand milestones, and the therapist for each
• Developmental milestones and red flags by age

Late talkers: when a toddler is not talking yet

A child is generally described as a late talker when, by 24 months, they use fewer than 50 words and haven't started combining two words together.⁠¹⁰ That is a screening line, not the usual milestone: the CDC's checklist puts "says about 50 words" at 30 months and "says at least two words together" at two years.⁠⁹

The important detail: a late talker has no other developmental delay or diagnosed condition. Movement, play and other milestones are on track; the delay is in language. Some late talkers also understand less than expected for their age, and they are at greater risk of lasting difficulty than late talkers whose understanding is on track.⁠¹⁰

How common: ASHA's prevalence estimates for two-year-olds range between 10% and 20%. Around 13.5% of 18–23-month-olds are late talkers, rising to 16–17.5% at 30–36 months.⁠¹⁰ In one population study of 1,766 two-year-olds, 13.4% were late talkers on a parent questionnaire that counted understanding as well as talking, and 19.1% on the single question about combining words.⁠¹¹

Do they catch up? Many do: ASHA reports that about 50% to 70% of late talkers catch up with their peers by late preschool or school age. Some don't, and late language emergence at 24 months has been found to be a risk indicator for language impairment at age seven. When 128 late talkers from that population study were tested at seven, 20% scored below expectations on general language ability, against 11% of children who had started talking on time, though the late talkers' average was in the typical range.⁠^10,12

The honest part: no one can tell you for certain in advance which group your child is in. How much a child understands, how many words they use and the family's socioeconomic circumstances are the best predictors researchers have found.⁠¹⁰ That uncertainty is why "wait and see" is a harder position to defend than it sounds.⁠¹³

Three approaches you'll encounter:

• Wait and see — no action, revisit when the child is older
• Watch and see — monitor and recheck at regular intervals, such as every six months⁠¹⁰
• Early intervention — active support now

Watching and early intervention are both defensible. Doing nothing is the weakest of the three: ASHA calls early assessment and periodic monitoring essential for late talkers, and an early intervention evaluation for a child under three is free in the US.⁠^2,10

Signs ASHA lists in a toddler who is slow to talk: differences in babbling; fewer consonant and vowel sounds; less use of gestures; and understanding fewer words. An evaluation also asks about ear infections and screens hearing, to rule out hearing loss.⁠¹⁰

At homeHow to encourage your toddler to talk

Bilingual children and speech delay

Being bilingual does not cause language delay.⁠¹⁰ Dropping a home language is not necessary, and ASHA says it should not be advised as a response to late talking.⁠¹⁰

ASHA's guidance on late talkers is plain: the ability to learn and use language does not appear to be harmed by learning more than one language, and when both vocabularies are counted, bilingual children learn words at the same rate as children who speak one language. Late talking is not the result of a second language, and bilingualism has not been shown to hold back language development or therapy outcomes in children with language disorders.⁠¹⁰

What this means practically:

• Don't drop your home language on anyone's advice. You'd be removing a source of rich input and, often, the language your child connects with family in. ASHA advises against recommending one language as a response to late talking.⁠¹⁰
• Vocabulary should be counted across both languages, not English alone: counted together, bilingual children learn words at the same rate as children who speak one language.⁠¹⁰
• Assessment should account for both languages. If it doesn't, say so.⁠^10,14
• If a professional tells you bilingualism is the problem, it's reasonable to ask what they're basing that on.

When to seek a speech and language evaluation

Talk to your pediatrician or request an evaluation if your child isn't meeting the milestones above (particularly several of them), is still hard for unfamiliar people to understand by around age four, isn't using gestures (pointing especially), isn't responding to their name or to sounds, or has a hoarse or unusual voice that persists.⁠^5,8,9

Get hearing checked. Hearing should be checked for any speech or language concern: ASHA's guidance includes a hearing screening to rule out hearing loss as a contributor, and fluid that stays behind the eardrum after ear infections can affect a child's hearing. Repeated infections can be treated, sometimes with small ear tubes.⁠^10,15

How to get a speech and language evaluation

Under 3 — early intervention. Early intervention under IDEA Part C serves children under three with a developmental delay, including in communication. You can refer your own child. Parents are among the primary referral sources, and the evaluation is free to parents; some states charge sliding fees for the services that follow.⁠² Search "[your state] early intervention".

3 and over — your school district. Public schools are required to evaluate children who may need special education services, including speech and language. Request it in writing. The district must generally complete the evaluation within 60 days of your consent, though some states set their own timeline. Children in private school, or not yet in school, are covered too.⁠¹⁶

Private assessment. Useful when waiting lists are long or a child does not qualify for a public program. Check what's included and what the report covers.

Through your pediatrician, who can refer, order a hearing test, and rule out medical causes.

• How to get a free evaluation for your child
• Sample letter: requesting a school evaluation
• Does my child need an evaluation?

Adults. Raise it with your doctor, or contact a speech-language pathologist directly. Sudden trouble speaking or understanding is different: it can be a sign of stroke and needs a 911 call (see the warning signs below).⁠³ What an adult evaluation involves, and what Medicare and insurance pay, is in speech therapy for adults.

What to expect from speech therapy

• Assessment first — standardized measures, observation, developmental history, hearing check⁠¹⁰
• Goals in daily-life terms — "asks for what she wants using two words," not "improves expressive language"⁠¹
• Play-based, for young children. Sessions often look like play built into everyday routines; that is by design⁠¹⁰
• You're part of it. Much of the work happens in everyday routines at home, and a good SLP shows you what to do between sessions⁠¹⁰
• Progress is uneven. Ask the SLP how progress is measured, and expect some slower stretches

What a child's evaluation, sessions and costs involve, step by step, is in our guide to speech therapy. Speech therapy at each age:

• Speech therapy for babies and toddlers
• Speech therapy for preschoolers
• Speech therapy for school-age children
• Speech therapy for teenagers
• Speech therapy for adults
• What speech therapy costs for a child

Conditions that occur alongside speech and language difficulties

Speech and language difficulties can occur alongside other conditions: autism (including gestalt language processing), ADHD, learning disabilities such as dyslexia, auditory processing difficulties, and neurological conditions such as cerebral palsy.⁠¹ Children with sensory processing differences may see a speech-language pathologist too.

Tongue tie. Research on whether tongue tie affects speech, and whether releasing it helps, is limited. A 2024 review pooled 10 small studies of children, about 22 in each on average, in which a speech-language pathologist or a parent judged the speech rather than measuring it; the studies reported better articulation after release, and the authors note how few studies there are.⁠¹⁷

Reading. Speech-sound difficulties that last until a child starts school, and those that come with a language difficulty, are linked to more trouble learning to read; early speech difficulties on their own carry only a modest risk.⁠¹⁸ See dyslexia.

Speech therapy for specific conditions:

• Speech therapy for autism
• Speech therapy for ADHD
• Speech therapy for developmental delays
• Speech therapy for sensory processing disorder
• Speech therapy for cerebral palsy
• Speech therapy for Down syndrome
• Speech therapy for dyspraxia
• Speech therapy for Ehlers-Danlos syndrome

Speech and language disorders in children

One guide per condition, written for parents.

Speech, language and swallowing problems in adults

One guide per condition, written for adults and their families.

In adults, stroke is the leading cause of aphasia and the most commonly reported cause of swallowing problems. Brain injury, brain tumors and dementia can also cause aphasia, and neurological illnesses such as Parkinson's disease and ALS are among the causes of speech and swallowing problems.⁠^1,4,7 Guides to those conditions, and to speech therapy for adults:

• Speech therapy for adults
• Stroke rehabilitation and recovery
• Traumatic brain injury rehabilitation
• Parkinson's disease and therapy
• ALS: speech, swallowing and therapy
• Dementia: communication and swallowing
• Neurologic rehabilitation for adults
• Start here for adults

Related topics

Areas that shape speech and language, or are shaped by them.

Frequently Asked Questions

More answersSpeech and language questions and answers

Sources

1. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. Scope of practice in speech-language pathology. 2016. doi:10.1044/policy.SP2016-00343. Checked November 3, 2026.
   Show the passageHide the passage

   ASHA is “the national professional, scientific, and credentialing association” for audiologists and speech-language pathologists. The speech-language pathologist “engages in professional practice in the areas of communication and swallowing across the life span”; service delivery areas are “speech production, fluency, language, cognition, voice, resonance, feeding, swallowing, and hearing”; fluency includes “Stuttering” and “Cluttering”; speech production includes “Motor planning and execution,” “Articulation” and “Phonological”; cognition includes “Attention,” “Memory,” “Problem solving” and “Executive functioning”; resonance includes “Hypernasality” and “Hyponasality”; feeding and swallowing include “Atypical eating (e.g., food selectivity/refusal, negative physiologic response)”; auditory habilitation covers communication “impacted by hearing loss, deafness” and “Auditory processing”; SLPs “play critical roles in … screening, diagnosis, and treatment of autism spectrum disorder” and in using the ICF “to develop functional goals”; potential causes of communication and swallowing disorders include developmental disabilities (“autism spectrum disorder, dyslexia, learning disabilities, attention-deficit disorder”) and “neurological disease/dysfunction (e.g., traumatic brain injury, cerebral palsy, cerebrovascular accident, dementia, Parkinson’s disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis).”
2. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, Part C regulations, 34 CFR Part 303 (eCFR). Parents are primary referral sources: §303.303(c). Checked November 3, 2026.
   Show the passageHide the passage

   Evaluation and assessment, service coordination and the IFSP “must be carried out at public expense, and for which no fees may be charged to parents”; a State may set a “schedule of sliding or cost participation fees that may be charged to the parent for early intervention services,” and a family the State finds unable to pay receives all Part C services at no cost: §303.521. An infant or toddler with a disability is a child under three who needs early intervention because of “a developmental delay, as measured by appropriate diagnostic instruments and procedures,” in areas including “Communication development,” or because of a diagnosed condition that “Has a high probability of resulting in developmental delay”: §303.21.
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Signs and symptoms of stroke. Updated May 19, 2026. Checked November 3, 2026.
   Show the passageHide the passage

   Sudden signs include “Sudden numbness or weakness in the face, arm, or leg, especially on one side” and “Sudden confusion, trouble speaking, or difficulty understanding speech”; the speech check: “Ask the person to repeat a simple phrase. Is the speech slurred or strange?”; “Call 9-1-1 right away if you or someone else has any of these symptoms”; “Note the time when any symptoms first appear.”
4. National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. Aphasia. Checked November 3, 2026.
   Show the passageHide the passage

   “Aphasia is a disorder that results from damage (usually from a stroke or traumatic brain injury) to areas of the brain that are responsible for language”; it “impairs the expression and understanding of language, as well as reading and writing”; “Stroke is the leading cause of aphasia”; it can appear after brain surgery or a head injury, “or it can develop gradually from the effects of a brain tumor”; “Other causes of aphasia include brain infections”; people with “Alzheimer’s disease or another form of dementia, may also develop aphasia.”
5. Stachler RJ, Francis DO, Schwartz SR, et al. Clinical practice guideline: hoarseness (dysphonia) (update). Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 2018;158(1 suppl):S1–S42. (PMID 29494321).
   Show the passageHide the passage

   Guideline of the American Academy of Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery Foundation, which “applies to all age groups”: “Clinicians should perform laryngoscopy, or refer to a clinician who can perform laryngoscopy, when dysphonia fails to resolve or improve within 4 weeks or irrespective of duration if a serious underlying cause is suspected.”
6. National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. Quick statistics about voice, speech, language. Last updated July 8, 2025. Checked November 3, 2026.
   Show the passageHide the passage

   “Approximately 1 in 14 (7.2%) U.S. children ages 3-17 has had a disorder related to voice, speech, or language in the past 12 months”; boys are more likely than girls to have one “(9.1% compared to 5.2%)”; prevalence is “highest among children ages 3-6 (10.8%)”; “More than half (59.7%) … received intervention services in the past year”; “Developmental language disorder (also called specific language impairment) has a prevalence of 7% or approximately 1 in 14 children”; “The prevalence of speech sound disorders … in young children is 8 to 9%. By the first grade, roughly 5% of children have noticeable speech disorders”; “More than 3 million Americans (about 1%) stutter”; “most children who stutter outgrow the condition while young, as many as 1 in 4 will continue to stutter for the rest of their lives”; “An estimated 17.9 million U.S. adults ages 18 or older, or 7.6%, report having had a problem with their voice in the past 12 months”; “Nearly 180,000 Americans acquire the disorder each year. About 2 million people in the United States currently have aphasia.”
7. Bhattacharyya N. The prevalence of dysphagia among adults in the United States. Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 2014;151(5):765–769. (PMID 25193514).
   Show the passageHide the passage

   Cross-sectional analysis of the 2012 National Health Interview Survey: an estimated 9.44 million adults (4.0%) reported a swallowing problem in the preceding 12 months; “22.7% … saw a health care professional for their swallowing problem”; “Stroke was the most commonly reported etiology”; “Swallowing problems affect 1 in 25 adults, annually.”
8. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. Communication milestones: age ranges, and the age pages birth to 1 year, 13 to 18 months, 19 to 24 months, 2 to 3 years and 3 to 4 years. Checked November 3, 2026.
   Show the passageHide the passage

   “These milestones are not meant to be a screening or diagnostic tool”; “Each child develops uniquely … If your child does not meet many of the milestones within their age range, visit ASHA ProFind to find an ASHA-certified audiologist or speech-language pathologist (SLP) for an assessment.” 7 to 9 months: “Looks at you when you call their name”; “Babbles long strings of sounds.” 10 to 12 months: “Points, waves, and shows or gives objects”; “Tries to copy sounds that you make”; “Says one or two words.” 13 to 18 months: “Follows directions—like ‘Give me the ball’”; “Points to make requests, to comment, or to get information”; “Understands and uses words for common objects, some actions, and people in their lives.” 19 to 24 months: “Uses and understands at least 50 different words”; “Puts two or more words together”; “Follows two-step directions.” 2 to 3 years: “Uses word combinations often”; “Asks why and how”; “Speech is becoming clearer but may not be understandable to unfamiliar listeners or to people who do not know your child.” 3 to 4 years: “By age 4 years, your child talks smoothly. Does not repeat sounds, words, or phrases most of the time”; “By age 4 years, your child speaks so that people can understand most of what they say.”
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Learn the Signs. Act Early. Milestones by 2 years, milestones by 30 months and milestones by 3 years. Checked November 3, 2026.
   Show the passageHide the passage

   Milestones are “things most children (75% or more) can do by a certain age.” 2 years: “Says at least two words together, like ‘More milk.’” 30 months: “Says about 50 words.” 3 years: “Talks well enough for others to understand, most of the time.” “If your child is not meeting one or more milestones, has lost skills he or she once had, or you have other concerns, act early. Talk with your child’s doctor, share your concerns, and ask about developmental screening.”
10. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. Late language emergence, Practice Portal. Checked November 3, 2026.
    Show the passageHide the passage

    “Late language emergence (LLE) is a delay in language onset with no other diagnosed disabilities or developmental delays in other cognitive or motor domains”; “An extensively used set of criteria for LLE is an expressive vocabulary of fewer than 50 words and no two-word combinations by 24 months of age”; “Prevalence estimates of LLE in 2-year-old children primarily range between 10% and 20%”; “In 18- to 23-month-old toddlers, the percentage of children with LLE is estimated to be 13.5%. This rate rises to 16%–17.5% in 30- to 36-month-old children”; “Children with LLE who have receptive and expressive delays are at greater risk for poor outcomes than children with LLE whose comprehension skills are in the normal range”; “It is essential to review these criteria at regular intervals (e.g., every 6 months)”; “Approximately 50%–70% of children with LLE are reported to catch up to peers and demonstrate normal language development by late preschool and school age”; “Receptive language skills, expressive vocabulary size, and socioeconomic status appear to be the best predictors of language outcomes”; signs include “smaller consonant and vowel inventories,” “delayed comprehension and use of symbolic gestures for communication,” “comprehension of fewer words,” and differences in babbling before age 2 that “can predict later delays in expressive vocabulary”; the case history covers the “history of middle ear infections”; the assessment includes “a hearing screening to rule out hearing loss as a possible contributing factor to language difficulties”; “early assessment and periodic monitoring are essential”; “Early identification and intervention can mitigate the impact of risk factors.” On more than one language: “The ability to learn and use language does not appear to be negatively affected by learning more than one language”; “When combined vocabularies are measured, researchers have found that bilingual children acquire vocabulary at the same rate as their monolingual peers”; “These findings support the belief that LLE is not a result of introducing a second language or simultaneously acquiring two languages. Monolingualism is not necessary and should not be advised as a response to LLE”; “For bilingual children, assessment in all languages is necessary”; “Bilingualism has not been shown to inhibit language development or therapeutic outcomes in the presence of language disorders.” On treatment: approaches include “child-centered—play-based activities that include everyday activities in natural settings”; “the SLP provides ideas and sample activities for parents and caregivers to engage in with the child”; working with caregivers helps “identify learning opportunities that occur in the home, community, or school.”
11. Zubrick SR, Taylor CL, Rice ML, Slegers DW. Late language emergence at 24 months: an epidemiological study of prevalence, predictors, and covariates. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. 2007;50(6):1562–1592. (PMID 18055773).
    Show the passageHide the passage

    Prospective cohort study of 1,766 two-year-olds with a parent questionnaire whose composite score covered “comprehension as well as production items”: “13.4% of the sample showed LLE via the ASQ criterion, with 19.1% using the single item of ‘combining words.’”
12. Rice ML, Taylor CL, Zubrick SR. Language outcomes of 7-year-old children with or without a history of late language emergence at 24 months. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. 2008;51(2):394–407. (PMID 18367685).
    Show the passageHide the passage

    128 children with late language emergence at 24 months and 109 who started talking on time, from the same cohort of 1,766, assessed directly at age 7: the late talkers’ group mean was “within the typical range,” but more of them performed below expectations on general language ability “(20% versus 11%),” speech, syntax and morphosyntax, “but not vocabulary or semantics.”
13. Capone Singleton N. Late talkers: why the wait-and-see approach is outdated. Pediatric Clinics of North America. 2018;65(1):13–29. (PMID 29173713).
    Show the passageHide the passage

    Review that reexamines “the panoptic view that most LT ‘catch up’ to their peers”: “The LT who persist with language disorder should not be overlooked. Late talking can impact socialization and school readiness, and can place some toddlers at risk for life-long disability.”
14. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. Multilingual service delivery in audiology and speech-language pathology, Practice Portal. “Standardized test scores are not valid and are not reported for an individual who is not reflected in the normative sample for a given assessment”; the clinician obtains speech samples “in all languages used by the client.” Checked November 3, 2026.
15. National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. Ear infections in children. Checked November 3, 2026.
    Show the passageHide the passage

    Chronic otitis media with effusion “happens when fluid remains in the middle ear for a long time or returns over and over again” and “also can affect their hearing”; when infections keep coming back and antibiotics are not helping, “many doctors will recommend a surgical procedure that places a small ventilation tube in the eardrum.”
16. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, Part B regulations, 34 CFR Part 300 (eCFR): §300.301 Initial evaluations, §300.111 Child find and §300.8 Child with a disability. Checked November 3, 2026.
    Show the passageHide the passage

    “Speech or language impairment means a communication disorder, such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance” (§300.8(c)(11)); “either a parent of a child or a public agency may initiate a request for an initial evaluation,” and the evaluation “Must be conducted within 60 days of receiving parental consent for the evaluation; or” within the State’s own timeframe if it sets one (§300.301); child find covers “All children with disabilities residing in the State, including … children with disabilities attending private schools,” and “Nothing in the Act requires that children be classified by their disability” so long as each child with a listed disability who needs special education is regarded as a child with a disability (§300.111).
17. Carnino JM, Rodriguez Lara F, Chan WP, Kennedy DG, Levi JR. Speech outcomes of frenectomy for tongue-tie release: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology. 2024;133(6):566–574. (PMID 38444142).
    Show the passageHide the passage

    Systematic review and meta-analysis of 10 studies, “average patient age of 4.10 years, and average cohort size of 22.17 patients”; speech outcomes “were subjectively measured based on the interpretation of a speech and language pathologist or parent”; “frenectomy for tongue-tie was associated with an improvement in speech articulation”; “Despite the limited investigations around speech outcomes post-frenectomy, these results are informative to providers treating tongue-tie.”
18. Hayiou-Thomas ME, Carroll JM, Leavett R, Hulme C, Snowling MJ. When does speech sound disorder matter for literacy? The role of disordered speech errors, co-occurring language impairment and family risk of dyslexia. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2017;58(2):197–205. (PMID 28102620).
    Show the passageHide the passage

    Longitudinal study of children identified with speech sound disorder at 3½, with literacy tested at 5½ and 8: “the persistence of speech difficulties to the point of school entry was associated with poorer emergent literacy skills”; “the presence of a co-occurring language impairment was strongly predictive of literacy skills”; “Early SSD alone has only modest effects on literacy development but when additional risk factors are present, these can have serious negative consequences.”

Medical disclaimer. This page is for general educational purposes and does not constitute medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always consult a qualified healthcare provider about your child. If your child has lost skills they previously had, contact their doctor promptly. If you or someone else suddenly has trouble speaking or understanding speech, call 911.